![]() Such visions seem today to have been replaced by digital utopias, based on the development of superfast computers and the enhancement of brain capacity through neural implants. ![]() With the development of psychological science about a century ago, so called psycho-utopian visions of a better society arose, based on the transformation of the human mind. Ideas of human nature describe a trajectory from supranature (theological and mystical) via nature (philosophical and mechanical) to subnature (digital). In terms of the causal layered analysis developed by Sohail Inayatullah, it is an investigation on the levels of worldviews and archetypes. This paper is a philosophical reflection on the historical development of ideas about the nature of human beings and what this development may mean for the future of and in education. This work will be of interest to all scholars interested in transpersonal studies, and more generally to spiritual seekers who are attracted to the ideas and principles of transpersonal theories. Many other critiques are developed that are of paramount relevance for transpersonal studies. The main conclusion of this analysis is that while integral theory presents many flaws from the perspective of otherness, otherness is a foundational constituent of the participatory paradigm. Then the LoO is applied to exemplars of the two major orientations in transpersonal theories, integral theory and the participatory paradigm. A method to guide the application of this critical perspective to transpersonal theories is provided as well. Once having shown the relevance of otherness, a critical perspective of analysis based on otherness, the LoO, is formed. This model contains five modalities of otherness with increasing significance. In order to demonstrate this, a model for otherness in transpersonal studies is created. Next, the study shows that otherness is a fundamental aspect for both the human being and the universe at large. The first step consists of compiling a significant number of critiques of transpersonalism that point to a common problem: an inadequate treatment of otherness. The overall argument is broken down into several steps. The application of the LoO to these two transpersonal theories brings their problematic aspects to the fore. The second goal is to apply the LoO to two major transpersonal theories, integral theory and the participatory paradigm. A significant part of this work is devoted to substantiate it and provide a theoretical and methodological foundation for it. I term this perspective the “Lens of Otherness” (LoO) and it consists in analyzing the ways otherness is integrated in a theory. First, to establish a critical perspective of analysis based on the construct of otherness. This dissertation aims to fulfill two objectives.
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